Islam started with the creation of the Earth. It did not start to gain a large following however until the prophet Mohammed was born in 570 A.D. He began preaching about the God and reading the scriptures of the Quran. He brought together the many tribes in the Middle East and began to preach what Islam truly means, “submission to God”. The Muslims, this is what followers of Islam are called, also started to conquer land to spread their faith. They conquered large parts of northeast Africa and the Middle East. This is the only area where the spread of Islam was done by the sword in this time. When the faith spread to other parts it was done by the draw of the faith. Here is a religion with one God, and he showed mercy on his subjects. This expansion was done after the death of Mohammed. He died in 632, and through his followers Islam saw this great expansion. Islam spread to the Southern tip of France, India, China, more of Africa, and numerous other parts of the world. Today, Islam is still the fastest growing religion, and it stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. It gets a bad rap because of the terrorist attacks, but at its heart it is a religion founded on love and equality to all. A select few have distorted the image of an entire religion.
If you would like to find out more about Islam check out these sites:
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/islam/history.html
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/islam/history.html

Surrender

The word Islam means “surrender, submission, or subjugation.” It is no surprise, then, that Muslim’s completely surrender themselves to their god, Allah. They are especially dedicated to Allah through five prayers that coincide with the five pillars. During these prayers, the Muslim’s submission to Allah is made clear by their posture, which involves a bent back as if to say they are not free, but a slave. Each Muslim believes he is on earth to worship and serve the one who created him.

Muslims serve Allah in hopes of receiving a gift from him in return. They recite prayers and obey his commands in order to receive earthly or heavenly rewards. The most precious gift they can receive is eternal salvation, which Allah has already given them. Therefore, they behave self righteously to achieve many good deeds and Allah’s grace.

In Islam, prayer to Allah is not voluntary, but rather an obligation. Many different regulations have been enforced in order to ensure Allah is the center of everything. For example, it is mandatory that everyone washes their hands, feet, arms, mouth, and face before prayer. This law is enforced to create a sense of purity in the mosques, and anyone who does not oblige to the rule has nullified their prayer.

One main prayer in Islam is “guide us in the straight path, the path of those whom thou hast blessed, not of those against whom thou are wrathful, nor of those who are astray.” This particular prayer expresses a Muslim’s dependency on Allah. Each Muslim frequently calls out to their god in prayer, and desires to serve him and fight for him wholeheartedly.

This website is especially helpful in understanding a Muslim's relationship to Allah:

http://www.light-of-life.com/eng/gospel/g4105efm.htm

Expansion of the Islamic/Arab Empire

Although Muhamed was able to greatly spread the message of Islam, it was not until after his death in 632 CE that the real expansion of the Arab Empire began. Only a few years after the death of Muhamed the Arab armies began to engage the Byzantine and Persian Sassanid Empires, which were the most powerful empires of the region, in battle. These engagements were a continuation of a long tradition of tribal raids into surrounding civilizations. These raids had taken place long before Muhamed and Islam were around. The difference now was that they finally had a centralized state of their own and a central command which could mobilize the military potential of the entire Arab nation. The Arabs were able to use this new found power to attack the Byzantine and Persian Empires, which were weakend from decades 0f war against each other. During the 650s the Arabs were finally able to defeat the Sassanid Empire and while they were not able to completely defeat the Byzantines, they were able to capture the southern half of Byzantium.

After defeating these two great empires the Arabs, who now operated on both land and sea, were able to sweep westward across North Africa. By the early 700s CE the had conquered Spain and had begun to attack southern France. Besides this great expansion west the Arabs army also moved east toward the Indus. Along the way they were able to capture some of the major oases towns of Central Asia. In 751CE the Arab Empire battle Chinese forces in the Battle of Talas River and were able to deal the Chinese a crushing defeat. This battle would have a major effect on the cultural evolution of Asia, as it halted the expansion of China to the west. It also helped to convert the Central Asian Turkic speaking people to Islam. This great expansion was important for multiple reasons. It was obviously important for great religous effect that it had, massively expanding Islam to both the east and west, but it was also important because of the effect that it had on Arab trade. During this expansion the Arab Empire was able to capture to capture profitable trade routes, as well as wealthy agricultural regions, both of which were able to greatly increase the wealth of the Islamic community.

Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World. Vol. 1. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin's, 2009. 2 vols. Print.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mBuaPAAACAAJ&dq=ways+of+the+world+strayer&ei=0Tj7Su_vK46OMoSi_YQP

Constantine the Great

Constantine was born in Naissus around 285 CE. In 293 CE he became a member of the court of Diocletian. When his father died in 306 CE, Constantine took his place as Augustus. His peers tried to force him to give up his title as Augustus and go back to being a Caesar, but he refused.

In 312 CE, Constantine invaded Italy. During his march to Rome, he claimed to have a vision of the sun with the Chi-Ro shining above it. The Chi-Ro is a divine symbol of Christ, so he had all of his soldiers paint it on their shields. They then battled an army with thousands of soldiers, and surprisingly overpowered them.


Constantine attributed this victory to the Chi-Ro he saw before the battle. He then thought of himself as an emperor of the Christian people. He soon became a dominant leader in Rome, and ordered that authorities stop executing the Christians. For a while, he was not familiar with Christian beliefs, but he learned as time went on. He often tried to solve disputes peacefully. However, at time he became increasingly brutal, and even persecuted the ‘wrong type’ of Christians.

For many years, Constantine only ruled the western half of Rome. While he didn’t force Christianity onto any citizens, he appointed Christian officials and was involved with the Christian church. In the east, however, the second emperor Licinius adamantly opposed the religion. There were several confrontations between the east and west, ultimately ending with Constantine defeating Licinius and becoming the single emperor of Rome.

As the emperor of Rome, he enforced many new laws. First he banned Pagan practices and built Christian churches. He implemented a harsh tax system, ruled that any girl who eloped would be burned alive, and sentenced rapists and their women victims to death. Despite these ruthless laws, Constantine still ruled as a Christian.

Toward the end of his life, Constantine planned to invade Persia. He wanted to be baptized along the way, in the river of Jordan where Jesus was baptized. However, he became sick in 337 CE and never made it to the river. Instead, he asked the bishop of Nicomedia, Eusebius, to baptize him on his deathbed.

For more information, follow this link:
http://www.roman-empire.net/decline/constantine-index.html

The Church after the fall of the Roman Empire

In the 3rd and 4th centuries CE the Western Roman Empire began to be invaded by barbarian tribes, which were coming from Central Asia and in 476 CE the Germanic tribe leader Odoacer, "King of Italy", deposed the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, marking the end of Western Rome. This could have easily dealt a major blow to christianity, which had grown so much throughout Rome. Fortunatelly this was not the case, as the barbarian tribes that took control of the Roman territory did not completely change the culture in the area but instead kept it along with christianity. It is infact the opposite that occured. With the fall of this great empire the Roman Catholic Church actually gained power instead of losing it.

There was a large hole left with the collapse of Rome and the Church became one of the main powers that stepped in to fill it. The Church, which based its hierachial organization of popes, bishops, priests, and monastaries on the organization of the Roman Empire, began to take over some of the functions of the government in the new nations which took the place of the Western Roman Empire. These functions included, politics, administration, education, and welfare. These new functions gave the Church more power than it had previously had, while also causing it to become quite wealthy. This new found power and wealth lead to the conversion of the many "pagan" people of Europe and to the expansion of christianity.


Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World. Vol. 1. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin's, 2009. 2 vols. Print.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mBuaPAAACAAJ&dq=ways+of+the+world+strayer&ei=0Tj7Su_vK46OMoSi_YQP

The Movement of the Continents

The land on earth is constantly moving. the continents are moving about 2 cm every year. Since the beginning of the earth, the land has been moving slowly, but continuously. 650 million years ago, the earth looked like this:










Plate tectonics under the earth's surface shift to cause the continents to move and many different environmental features to form. the earth changed a great deal throughout the years. Around 250 million years ago the continents formed a supercontinent called Pangea.










This supercontinent allowed for the distribution of different animals and plants on different continents. Pangea is the reason that people find fossils of a certain type of species on Africa and also on South America; at one point, these continents touched.

Pangea began to break up around 150 million years ago. the continents began their drift to the position that they are in today. this took millions of years. When dinosaurs existed on earth (around 66 million years ago), the planet looked like this:










The continents are not done moving. In millions of years they will look much different than they do now. It is estimated that the continents will look like the following picture when 250 million years has passed. It is believed that another supercontinent will form.











If you would like to know more about the movement of the continents over the years you should visit http://www.scotese.com/earth.htm.

Saint Paul

Paul of Tarsus, originally known as Saul, was probably the second most influental individual in the establishment of Christianity, behind only Jesus himself. He was not always a strong believer in the teachings of Jesus though. The story of Pauls conversion began on the road to Demascus, when he was still going by the name Saul. At this point Paul was actually on a mission to arrest any Christians that he could find and take them back to Jerusalem. According to Acts 9 it was on the road to Demascus when a light from heaven flashed around Paul and he fell to the ground. He then heard a voice which said "Saul, Saul why do you persecute me?"

"Who are you, Lord?" Saul asked

"I am Jesus whom you are persecuting," he replied. "Now get up an go into the city, and you will be told what you must do."

Paul was then lead into Demascus by the men that were traveling with him because he could not see. For three days he was blind and did not eat or drink anything. It was then when, according to the Acts 9, God sent a disciple named Ananias to speak to Paul. When he arrived at the house where Paul was staying Ananias placed his hands on Paul and said, "Brother Saul, theLord--Jesus, who appered to you on the road as you were coming here--has sent me so that you may see agin and be filled with the Holy Spirit." Paul, who was imediately able to see again, was baptised and after taking some food, he regained his strength. Then, according to Acts, Paul spent the next few days preaching in the synagogues that Jesus is the Son of God.

Paul went on to author many writings that would play a major part in the establishment of the Christian religion, including many books of the Bible. This includes Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon. He also established many of the beliefs that still carry Christianity today, such as the importance of celibacy and the theory of divine grace and salvation. Paul also played a key role in making Christianity a universal religion because he not only preached his beliefs to Jews and fellow Christians, but also Gentiles. He continued this preaching until his death in either 64 or 67 CE. Paul probably believed that what he was teaching was important, but I wonder if he could of even fathomed that his teaching would help lead to what is now considered one of the largest, if not the largest, religion(s) in the world?

Men's Devotional Bible- New International Version. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Corporation, 1993. Print.

http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/christians/p/PaulTarsus.htm

Fun fact: the Toltec used wooden swords in battle so as not to kill their enemy

The Toltec was an ancient civilization in Mexico that gained power around 900 CE. Their capital was an urban center called Tollán, or Tula. In this city, archeologists have found remains of pyramids, ball courts, and temples.

The Toltec were superior in architecture. The name Toltec actually means “master builders” in Nahuatl. They were architecturally advanced because they had access to many materials, such as different metals and stones. Their influences were from Teotihuacán and the Olmec cultures. They built many churches and Olmec inspired pyramids, one of which was in the famous city of Cholula.

The Toltec were polytheistic, but focused their practices on Quetzalcoatl. Quetzalcoatl was a deity who represented the forces of good and evil. He resided in Tula until he left in search of his homeland. In his honor, they built a large pyramid in Cholula. The Toltec also practiced human sacrifice, sun worship, and a sacred ball game called tlatchli.

Around 1000 CE, the Toltec began to expand toward the south. Eventually, they dominated the Mayan empire. It wasn’t until the thirteenth century that the empire weakened, and nomadic people called the Chichimec destroyed them.

Unfortunately, there is not an abundance of information about the Toltec on the web. However, here is the site I found most useful in my research: http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0848989.html

The Silk Disaster

The Silk Road served as a large trade network connecting major empires from China to Rome. However, like Jordan said in the post before mine, it actually spread more than goods throughout Asia and Europe. Along with Buddhism, it also spread disease.

In Western Europe in the fourteenth century, a plague affected a large population. The plague earned the name the “Black Death” in the nineteenth century, but originally had the name the “Great Plague” or “Great Pestilence.” The spots on the skin of contaminated people inspired the name “Black Death,” since the spots were black and dark blue.

The disease originated in Central Asia. Traders that travelled across the Silk Road carried the disease all the way to Europe. It quickly infected Spain, England, Ireland, and France. Within five years, the plague had killed around one third of the European population.

It seems that people unintentionally spread the disease more than they knew. When the disease threatened a city, citizens frantically fled and unknowingly brought the disease with them. Also, people attended crowded parties in attempts to comfort themselves and relieve their stress. Instead, they ended up spreading the disease even more rapidly, since they were so close to so many other people.

The plague created major changes in Europe. There were fewer workers, and they demanded higher wages. Many teachers died, so uneducated people taught the schools. Also, people spoke Latin less often, since not all the survivors were familiar with the language. In total, the plague killed as many as seventy five million people.

Follow this link to read more in depth about the Black Plague:

http://www.theblackdeath.co.uk/

Buddhism's is Brought to China

In class today we learned about the Silk Road and its importance in Eurasia. The Silk Road was one of the first major trade routes in the world. It brought goods such as cotton textiles, ivory, and pearls from China to the Mediteranean and many places in between, but it also brought a large cultural influence into China. That cultural influence is the Buddhist religion.

Up until the creation of the Silk Road, in the second century BCE, Buddhism was found primarily in India and some Central Asian nations. With the creation of this major trade network Chinese merchants began traveling west in order to trade goods with Rome, Egypt, India, and the nations of Central Asia. While they were in India came upon this new religion called Buddhism. It is believed that Buddhism reached China sometime in the first and second century CE. Having heard of this religion many monks throughout the next centuries would traveled the Silk Road to India in order to study Buddhism, they would then return to China and teach others what they had learned. Some of these iffluental monks included Zhu Shixing from the Three Kingdoms (220-280CE), Fa Xian and Kumrajva in the Jin Dynasty (265-420CE), Song Yun and Hui Shang in the Northern Dynasty (420-589CE), and Xuan Zang in the Tang Dynasty (618-907CE).

. ">"Culture of Silk Road." Travel China Guide Travel China Guide.com, 2009. Web. 28 Oct. 2009

Russian shift after Mongol invasion

Cross culture contact was common by 1000 AD but still had strong and long lasting effects. The Mongol invasion of Russia in 1237 was no exception. The Mongolian army called the Golden Horde swept into Russia and conquered it easily. For the next 200 years Mongolians, called Tatars by the Russians, ruled over much of the territory. The occupation brought long lasting changes to Russia long after the Mongolians were driven from the lands.

Before the Mongolian invasion Russian society and power was divided into three levels. At the top there were many princes that were scattered around the country each ruling over his own territory. Bellow the princes were nobles who had a great deal of independence. At the bottom were merchants, shopkeepers, and free peasant farmers who met at times to decide local issues by popular vote. After the Mongol invasion and occupancy Russia would never return to this system.

The Mongolians were all united under a Khan or emperor. The Russians on the other hand were scattered across a large territory and each individual kingdom was power hungry. They princes were suspicious of there neighbor rulers intentions and often made war on each other. One by one the individual princes fell to the Mongolians. They were unwilling to band together to repel the invaders. The Mongolians killed most of the princes, nobles, and anyone else the felt like killing.

Eventually after the Mongolians were no longer united under one ruler there was a Russian uprising and they were able to take back their country. The country now was more accustomed to centralized authority and would be lead by tsars. This new beginning would not tolerate independence or democracy and would eventually become the Soviet Union. The culture of the Mongols including their idea of Khans spread to Russia through force and occupation.

The Olmec Civilization

In Mesoamerica, the first indications of complex life were that of the Olmec civilization. This civilization is thought to have been around since 1500 BCE until about 100 BCE or until sometime in the Common Era. The Olmec Empire was very small; at its largest, it had less than 1,000 people. The area where the Olmec people once lived, south of the Gulf of Mexico, is about 125 miles long and about 50 miles wide.
The word “Olmec” means “rubber people” in the Aztec language, Nahuatl. The Olmec people were given this name because they discovered how to make rubber by removing latex from a rubber tree, called Castilla Elastica, and then adding the juice from a vine, called Ipomoea Alba.
Making rubber is not the only accomplishment of the Olmec people. They also constructed great centers with sophisticated architecture and drainage systems. In these centers there were many public-ceremonial buildings, and also houses for both commoners and the elite, so it is obvious that the Olmec centers were for everyone.
It is also believed that the Olmecs where the original creators of the Mesoamerican ball game, played by many tribes in Mesoamerica, and the rubber ball that was use for it. There was a recent discovery of many rubber balls and a ball court where the Olmec people once lived. The Olmecs also might have been the first of the Mesoamerican civilizations to develop a written language, but this is not yet known for a fact.
If you would like to know more about the Olmec civilization, check out this website: http://www.crystalinks.com/olmec.html.

Norse Discovery of North America

Since we haven’t discussed the Americas in class I thought I would talk about its discovery. Growing up everyone has learned that Christopher Columbus discovered America. We say discovered although there was already Native Americans living in the Americas. We say it because most of Europe didn’t know about the Americas. It seems that another group of Europeans beat Columbus to the Americas and that would be the Norse.

The Norse were led by Leif Erickson and made their discovery around 1000. This is approximately 500 years before Columbus discovered the Bahamas. The Norse spotted land west of Greenland in 986 when Bjarni Herjolfsson left Iceland to reach a settlement on Greenland but because of high winds and fog lost his course. He spotted land that was unlike the description of Greenland and corrected his course back east eventually making it to Greenland without landing in North America.

Leif Erickson very interested in Bjarni’s story left Greenland in search of these new lands. Erickson explored the coast and eventually founded a small settlement where they stayed a winter. They called the new land Vinland because of the grape vines that were growing there. In the spring they returned to Greenland.

The archaeological site of L'Anse aux Meadows is believed to be an attempted colony by Leif Erickson and the Norse in 1003. At this site many Norse objects have been found and carbon dating estimates the date around 1000. A list and pictures of these objects can be found at http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/vinland.html

It is believed that the colony failed due to the same problems found in Greenland. The climate got colder and the colonies could no longer sustain themselves with agriculture. The colonies simply vanished in Greenland and must have also failed in North America.

It is very interesting that this is not common knowledge among students growing up in North America. Although research is still being done knowledge of the Norse discovery is being more commonly accepted.


Information found at
http://news.softpedia.com/news/How-Did-Vikings-Discover-America-49891.shtml
http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/vinland.html

Jenne-jeno

Jenne-jeno is one of the oldest cities of sub-Saharan Africa that historians know about today. Inhabitants lived in the civilization as early as 300 BCE. By 900 CE, it had expanded to become one of the largest urban centers of the region, with at one point more than forty thousand people.

The civilization, which was located near the Niger River, attracted migrants who were in search of a dependable water supply. They brought their domesticated animals, their skills, and their iron technology to the region.

Jenne-jeno did not have an organized class structure like the Egyptians or Romans. Instead, they lived in equality without any political authority or warfare. They built many settlements that surrounded a middle city. These smaller settlements specialized in different trades, for example iron smiths, potters, and leather workers. Eventually these occupational groups became segregated. Parents would teach their children the family job, and children only married within their group. Some groups shared services with each other, but still remained physically separated.

Although the Niger provided nutrients for agriculture and clay for pottery, it did not provide other resources such as iron and fuel. This led to a large system of trade throughout West Africa. They used boats to travel the Niger and donkeys to travel by land. The people of Jenne-jeno traded grain, fish, and meats in return for salt, iron, and copper.

Eventually, a cultural shift occurred. Larger empires emerged and West Africa became connected with North America and Islam. However, parts of the culture and life style of the Niger Valley remain today.


Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin’s, 2009. Print.

Teotihuacan

At about the same time as the great Mayan civilizations of southern Mesoamerica there was another great city thriving. This city, known as Teotihuacan, was to the north of the Mayan civilizations in the Valley of Mexico. It is believed that the city was founded around 150 BCE and was actually built to a plan instead of evolving unsystematically like most other cities. By the year 550Ce the city had expanded to take up about eight square miles and had a population, which has been estimated at from 100,000 to 200,000. This made it easily the largest city in America at the time and also one of the six biggest cities in the world.

Unfortunately there is also quite a bit that is not known about the city, including the original name of the city, language which was spoken by its citizens, or what kind of government was in place in the city. We do know, though, that it was, physically, very large and impressive. The city was built with broad avenues, big marketplaces, large plazas, palaces, and marketplaces. There was a main boulevard which went through the city, now known as the Street of the Dead. Along this street there were the majestic homes of the elite, the headquarters of the authorities of the state, many temples, as well as two giant pyramids. One pyramid was known as the Pyramid of the Sun, while the other was known as the Temple of the Feathered Serpent. It is believed by many people that the citizens of this Teotihuacan believed that the Pyramid of the Sun was the site of creation itself, birthplace of the sun and moon. In the Temple of Feathered Serpents archeologists have found the bones of 200 people who were apparently unwilling sacrificial victims that were forced to accompany the high ranking individuals that were buried there into the after life. The city also contained thousands of apartment complexes which were built of the main avenues in a gridlike pattern of streets. These apartments were home to the commoners that called this city home.

Besides all of these great buildings, the city also contained waterways, reservoirs, drainage systems, and many colorful murals. The buildings of the city were all decorated with these murals, as well as sculptures, and carvings. Most of these pieces of art work displayed abstract geometric and stylized images, while others portrayed gods and goddesses in many different forms, such as serpents, starfish, jaguars, flower, and warriors. The artwork found in Teotihuacan was not like that of the Mayan civilizations though because it did not contain many images of self adoring rulers and individuals. Many people believe that “the rulers of Teotihuacan might have intentionally avoided the personality cult of the dynastic art and writing” which was characteristic of the Maya. There are also many people that believe that the rulers of this great city may have been made up of a council of high ranking elites instead of a single monarch. Although the form of government of the city is not known it acknowledged by many historians that around the time 300-600 CE there was a region of about 10,000 square miles that was administered directly from the city, as well as other areas that likely provided tribute to the city.

Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin's, 2009. Print.

Unlocking long-sealed cave may solve Mexican pyramid mystery. 2008. xenophilius.wordspress.com. Web. 21 Oct. 2009 .

The Wheel: A Great Invention

People have been inventing things since the dawn of mankind. My dad is an inventor along with thousands of other people who have an idea that would make life a little better for us all. Although the inventions these days are much more advanced than the inventions that the first humans made, I believe that the invention of the wheel was one of the best inventions of all time.

Many people believe that the wheel has been around since 8000 BCE, however, that date that it was made is not exactly known. The oldest wheel ever discovered was made in 3500 BCE in Mesopotamia. This wheel is thought to have been a potter’s wheel used to make pots and other clay artifacts. Around 3200 BCE, the Mesopotamians began to use the wheel for transportation by putting it on their chariots. The Egyptians later made improvements to this wheel by making it a spoked wheel.

Before the wheel was invented for transportation, people used rollers (logs) to transport heavy objects. They would put one roller beneath the object, roll it, and then place another roller in front of the first, and so on. The invention of the wheel made transporting goods a thousand times easier for these earlier people.

Today, we use wheels all the time; on cars, buses, trains, planes, bicycles, luggage, lawn mowers, trailers, wheelbarrows, etc. The list goes on and on. Wheels make life so much better for everyone, and we can all thank the Mesopotamians for that.

http://hubpages.com/hub/Invention-of-the-Wheel
http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/wheel.htm

Vikings establish Dublin

Ireland’s capital city Dublin was originally founded by Vikings. In fact they founded many of Ireland’s first cities including Waterford, Wexford, Arklow, Cork, and Limerick. The Vikings raided and looted the Irish cost but eventually made stronger impacts on Ireland and not all of them were bad.

The Vikings started making raids on Ireland around 795 AD. They descended on churches and monasteries up and down the Irish coast. Their main goal was to plunder but over time they began holding relics, abbots and noblemen for ransom. The Vikings found even more money by capturing Irishmen and selling them as slaves. After decades of raids the Vikings decided to set up camp and stay in Ireland.

In 841 a Viking by the name of Turgeis lead his band ashore at present day Dublin. It was a perfect place to lunch raids all along and into Ireland. It was next to the Liffey River and had a harbor on the sea. The Vikings built houses, defensive walls, and established an affective Vikings trading and raiding settlement.

Dublin would be in Viking control for over a hundred years. The Barbarian invasion of Ireland by the Vikings caused panic, death, and destruction, but it also brought positive impacts. The Vikings introduced the concept of cities to Ireland. The cities became centers for international trade. They also taught the Irish to build ships and introduced coinage.

Information available at

http://www.ncte.ie/viking/listt.htm
http://www.wesleyjohnston.com/users/ireland/past/pre_norman_history/vikings.html
and in this book
http://www.amazon.com/Barbarian-Invasions-Shaped-Modern-World/dp/1592333036/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255586303&sr=8-5

Mayans Master Math

Along with Latin America, I also have a personal interest in mathematics. Combining these two interests, I recently learned that the ancient Mayans discovered two important ideas in mathematics. They are positional value and the concept of zero. Today, these two concepts are so effortless to us that it may not seem like a huge discovery. However, two educated civilizations, the Greeks and the Romans, failed to discover the concept before the Mayans. Although we currently use both concepts, our number system is different than the Mayan’s.

Unlike the number system we use, which is based on the number ten, the Maya system is based on the number twenty. This means that the Mayans counted from zero to nineteen before they moved to the next order, while we currently only count to nine. While we learned to count on our fingers, the Mayans must have learned to count using their fingers and toes.

There is also a difference in the symbols we use to count. We recognize a different symbol for each of the ten numbers. On the other hand, the Mayans only used three symbols. They used a shell for zero, a dot for one, and a line for five. For example, to represent the number thirteen, the Mayans would use two lines and three dots.*

The Maya system, in my opinion, was more efficient than the previous systems of the Romans and Greeks. Try to imagine writing a large number using the Roman numeral system in comparison to the new and improved Maya system.

Also, I cannot help but compare our decimal system to the ancient Maya system. I may be a little biased, but I do believe our decimal system is the most efficient system thus far. However, since our system is based off of the Maya system, I feel the need to say thank you ancient Mayans, for making math class easier.

*To see a picture of the symbols used, or to read more about the application of Maya mathematics, follow this link: http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/1122-the-maya-civilization-maya-numerals-and-calendar